The great white shark, Carcharodon carcharias, also known as great white, white pointer, white shark, or white death, is a large lamniform shark Sharks are a type of fish with a full cartilaginous skeleton and a highly streamlined body. The earliest known sharks date from more than 420 million years ago, before the time of the dinosaurs found in coastal surface waters in all major oceans An ocean is a major body of saline water, and a principal component of the hydrosphere. Approximately 71% of the Earth's surface (~3.61 X 1014 m2) is covered by ocean, a continuous body of water that is customarily divided into several principal oceans and smaller seas. The great white shark is very well known for its size, with the largest individuals known to have approached or exceeded 6 metres (20 ft) in length[3] and 2,268 kilograms (5,000 lb) in weight.[4] It reaches maturity at around 15 years of age and can have a life span of over 30 years. The great white shark is arguably the world's largest known extant macropredatory fish and is one of the primary predators of marine mammals Marine mammals are a diverse group of 120 species of mammal that are primarily ocean-dwelling or depend on the ocean for food. They include the cetaceans , the sirenians (manatees and dugong), the pinnipeds (true seals, eared seals and walrus), and several otters (the sea otter and marine otter). The polar bear, while not aquatic, is also usually. It is also known to prey upon a variety of other marine animals including fish A fish is any aquatic vertebrate animal that is covered with scales, and equipped with two sets of paired fins and several unpaired fins. Most fish are "cold-blooded", or ectothermic, allowing their body temperatures to vary as ambient temperatures change. Fish are abundant in most bodies of water. They can be found in nearly all aquatic, pinnipeds Pinnipeds or fin-footed mammals are a widely distributed and diverse group of semi-aquatic marine mammals comprising the families Odobenidae (the walrus), Otariidae (eared seals, including sea lions and fur seals), and Phocidae (earless seals), and seabirds Seabirds are birds that have adapted to life within the marine environment. While seabirds vary greatly in lifestyle, behaviour and physiology, they often exhibit striking convergent evolution, as the same environmental problems and feeding niches have resulted in similar adaptations. The first seabirds evolved in the Cretaceous period, and modern. It is the only surviving species In biology, a species is one of the basic units of biological classification and a taxonomic rank. A species is often defined as a group of organisms capable of interbreeding and producing fertile offspring. While in many cases this definition is adequate, more precise or differing measures are often used, such as based on similarity of DNA or of its genus In biology, a genus is a low-level taxonomic rank (a taxon) used in the classification of living and fossil organisms, which is an example of definition by genus and differentia. The term comes from Latin genus "descent, family, type, gender", cognate with Greek: γένος – genos, "race, stock, kin", Carcharodon.

The best selling novel Jaws Jaws is a 1974 novel by Peter Benchley. It tells the story of a great white shark that preys upon a tourist resort, and the voyage of three men to kill it and the subsequent blockbuster film Jaws is a 1975 American film directed by Steven Spielberg and based on Peter Benchley's novel of the same name. The police chief of Amity Island, a fictional summer resort town, tries to protect beachgoers from a giant great white shark by closing the beach, only to be overruled by the town council, which wants the beach to remain open to draw a by Steven Spielberg Steven Allan Spielberg is an American film director, screenwriter, and film producer. In a career spanning six decades, Spielberg's films have taken up many themes and genres. Spielberg's early science-fiction and adventure films were seen as an archetype of modern Hollywood blockbuster filmmaking. In later years, his films began addressing such depicted the great white shark as a "ferocious man eater". In reality, humans are not the preferred prey item of the great white shark.[5]

The IUCN The International Union for Conservation of Nature is an international organization dedicated to natural resource conservation. The stated goal of the organization is to help the world find pragmatic solutions to the most pressing environment and development challenges. The group publishes a "Red List" compiling information from a treats the great white shark as vulnerable A vulnerable species is a species which is likely to become endangered unless the circumstances threatening its survival and reproduction improve. The following is a very small, non-representative fraction of the 8,566 species listed as vulnerable on the IUCN Red List,[2] while it is included in Appendix II CITES is an international agreement between governments, drafted as a result of a resolution adopted in 1963 at a meeting of members of the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN). The text of the convention was agreed upon in 1973, and CITES entered into force on 1 July 1975. Its aim is to ensure that international trade in of CITES CITES is an international agreement between governments, drafted as a result of a resolution adopted in 1963 at a meeting of members of the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN). The text of the convention was agreed upon in 1973, and CITES entered into force on 1 July 1975. Its aim is to ensure that international trade in.[6]

Contents

Etymology

Carolus Linnaeus Carl Linnaeus [a 2] (Latinized as Carolus Linnaeus [a 3], also known after his ennoblement as Carl von Linné , 23 May[a 1] 1707 – 10 January 1778) was a Swedish botanist, physician, and zoologist, who laid the foundations for the modern scheme of binomial nomenclature. He is known as the father of modern taxonomy, and is also considered one of gave the great white shark its first scientific name, Squalus carcharias in 1758. Sir Andrew Smith gave it the generic In biology, a genus is a low-level taxonomic rank (a taxon) used in the classification of living and fossil organisms, which is an example of definition by genus and differentia. The term comes from Latin genus "descent, family, type, gender", cognate with Greek: γένος – genos, "race, stock, kin" name Carcharodon in 1833, and in 1873 the generic name was identified with Linnaeus' specific name In zoological nomenclature, a specific name is the second part (second name) in the name of a species (a binomen). The first part is the name of the genus and the current scientific name Carcharodon carcharias was finalised. Carcharodon comes from the Greek Greek , an independent branch of the Indo-European family of languages, is the language of the Greeks. Native to the southern Balkans, it has the longest documented history of any Indo-European language, spanning 34 centuries of written records. In its ancient form, it is the language of classical ancient Greek literature and the New Testament of words karcharos, which means sharp or jagged, and odous, which means tooth.[7].

Left: Megalodon The megalodon is an extinct megatoothed shark that existed in prehistoric times, from the Oligocene to Pleistocene epochs, approximately 25 to 1.5 million years ago tooth with two great white shark teeth Shark teeth are relics of shark evolution and biology, and as they are often the only part of the shark to survive fossilisation, represent much of the Selachimorpha fossil record, extending back hundreds of millions of years. The most ancient types of sharks date back to 450 million years ago during the Late Ordovician period, and they are mostly and a U.S. quarter for size comparison Right: A 4 cm tall fossil C. carcharias tooth from Miocene The Miocene is a geological epoch of the Neogene Period and extends from about 23.03 to 5.33 million years before the present . The Miocene was named by Sir Charles Lyell. Its name comes from the Greek words μείων (meiōn, “less”) and καινός (kainos, “new”) and means "less recent" because it has 18% fewer modern sea sediments in the Atacama Desert The Atacama Desert is a virtually rainless plateau in South America, covering a 600-mile strip of land on the Pacific coast of South America, west of the Andes mountains. The Atacama desert is, according to NASA, National Geographic and many other publications, the driest desert in the world, due to the rain shadow on the leeward side of the of Chile Chile (traditional English pronunciation /ˈtʃɪli/, also pronounced /ˈtʃiːleɪ/ ), officially the Republic of Chile (Spanish: República de Chile [reˈpuβlika ðe ˈtʃile] ( listen)), is a country in South America occupying a long, narrow coastal strip between the Andes mountains to the east and the Pacific Ocean to the west. It borders

Ancestry and fossil record

The great white shark came into existence during the Mid-Miocene The Miocene is a geological epoch of the Neogene Period and extends from about 23.03 to 5.33 million years before the present . The Miocene was named by Sir Charles Lyell. Its name comes from the Greek words μείων (meiōn, “less”) and καινός (kainos, “new”) and means "less recent" because it has 18% fewer modern sea epoch.[8] The earliest known fossils are about 16 million years old.[1] However, the phylogeny In biology, phylogenetics is the study of evolutionary relatedness among various groups of organisms , which is discovered through molecular sequencing data and morphological data matrices. The term phylogenetics is of Greek origin from the terms phyle/phylon (φυλή/φῦλον), meaning "tribe, race," and genetikos (γενετικός of the great white is still in dispute.[8] The original hypothesis for the great white's origins is that it shares a common ancestor with a prehistoric Prehistory is a term used to describe the period before recorded history. Paul Tournal originally coined the term Pré-historique in describing the finds he had made in the caves of southern France.[citation needed] It came into use in France in the 1830s to describe the time before writing, and the word "prehistoric" was introduced into shark, C. megalodon The megalodon is an extinct megatoothed shark that existed in prehistoric times, from the Oligocene to Pleistocene epochs, approximately 25 to 1.5 million years ago. Similarities among the physical remains and the extreme size of both the great white and C. megalodon led many scientists to believe that these sharks were closely related, and the name Carcharodon megalodon was applied to the latter.[8] However, a new hypothesis proposes that C. megalodon and the great white are distant relatives (albeit sharing the family Lamnidae These sharks have pointed snouts, spindle-shaped bodies, and large gill openings. The first dorsal fin is large, high, erect and angular or somewhat rounded. The second dorsal and anal fins are minute. The caudal peduncle has one or two distinct keels. The teeth are large. The fifth gill opening is in front of the pectoral fin and spiracles are), and that the great white is more closely related to an ancient mako shark, Isurus hastalis, than to C. megalodon.[8] In addition, the new hypothesis assigns C. megalodon to the Carcharocles genus, which also comprises other megatoothed sharks, and Otodus obliquus is the ancient representative of the extinct Carcharocles lineage.

Distribution and habitat

White shark at Isla Guadalupe, Mexico Guadalupe Island, or Isla Guadalupe (29°02′20″N 118°16′41″W / 29.039°N 118.278°W

Great white sharks live in almost all coastal and offshore waters which have water temperature between 12 and 24 °C (54 and 75 °F), with greater concentrations off the coasts of Australia For at least 40,000 years before European settlement in the late 18th century, Australia was inhabited by indigenous Australians, who belonged to one or more of the roughly 250 language groups. After sporadic visits by fishermen from the immediate north and discovery by Dutch explorers in 1606, Australia's eastern half was claimed by the British, South Africa Coordinates: 29°02′46″S 25°03′47″E / 29.046°S 25.063°E The Republic of South Africa is a country located at the southern tip of Africa, with a 2,798 kilometres coastline on the Atlantic and Indian Oceans. To the north lie Namibia, Botswana and Zimbabwe; to the east are Mozambique and Swaziland; while Lesotho is an independent, California California's geography ranges from the Pacific coast to the Sierra Nevada mountain range in the east, to Mojave desert areas in the southeast and the Redwood–Douglas fir forests of the northwest. The center of the state is dominated by the Central Valley, one of the most productive agricultural areas in the world. California is the most, the northeastern US The Northeastern United States is a region of the United States. According to the definition used by the United States Census Bureau, the Northeast region consists of nine states: the New England states of Maine, New Hampshire, Vermont, Massachusetts, Rhode Island and Connecticut; and the Mid-Atlantic states of New York, New Jersey and, Mexico In Pre-Columbian Mesoamerica many cultures matured into advanced civilizations such as the Olmec, the Toltec, the Teotihuacan, the Zapotec, the Maya and the Aztec before the first contact with Europeans. In 1521, Spain conquered and colonized the territory, which was administered as the viceroyalty of New Spain which would eventually become Mexico's Isla Guadalupe Guadalupe Island, or Isla Guadalupe (29°02′20″N 118°16′41″W / 29.039°N 118.278°W , and New Zealand New Zealand is an island country in the south-western Pacific Ocean comprising two main landmasses , and numerous smaller islands, most notably Stewart Island/Rakiura and the Chatham Islands. The indigenous Māori language name for New Zealand is Aotearoa, commonly translated as The Land of the Long White Cloud. The Realm of New Zealand also and the waters of the Mediterranean The Mediterranean Sea is a sea connected to the Atlantic Ocean surrounded by the Mediterranean region and almost completely enclosed by land: on the north by Anatolia and Europe, on the south by Africa, and on the east by the Levant. The sea is technically a part of the Atlantic Ocean, although it is usually identified as a completely separate.[9][10] One of the densest known populations is found around Dyer Island, South Africa where much shark research is conducted.

It is an epipelagic Any water in the sea that is not close to the bottom or near to the shore is in the pelagic zone. The word pelagic comes from the Greek πέλαγος or pélagos, which means "open sea." The pelagic zone can be thought of in terms of an imaginary cylinder or water column that goes from the surface of the sea almost to the bottom, as fish, observed mostly in inland tributaries in the presence of rich game like fur seals Fur seals are any of nine species of pinnipeds in the Otariidae family. One species, the northern fur seal inhabits the North Pacific, while seven species in the Arctocephalus genus are found primarily in the Southern hemisphere. They are much more closely related to sea lions than true seals, and share with them external ears (pinnae), relatively, sea lions Sea lions are any of seven species in seven genera of modern pinnipeds including one extinct species . Sea lions are characterized by the presence of external ear pinnae (ear-flaps), long front flippers, the ability to walk on all four flippers on land, and the lack of dense underfur. Their range extends from the subarctic to tropical waters of, cetaceans The order Cetacea (pronounced /sɨˈteɪʃə/, L. cetus, whale, from Greek) includes the marine mammals commonly known as whales, dolphins, and porpoises. Cetus is Latin and is used in biological names to mean "whale"; its original meaning, "large sea animal", was more general. It comes from Ancient Greek κῆτος (kētos),, other sharks, and large bony fish species. It is an open-ocean dweller and has been recorded at depths of around 1,220 m (4,000 ft).[11] These findings challenge the traditional notion about the great white as being a coastal species.[11]

According to a recent study, California California's geography ranges from the Pacific coast to the Sierra Nevada mountain range in the east, to Mojave desert areas in the southeast and the Redwood–Douglas fir forests of the northwest. The center of the state is dominated by the Central Valley, one of the most productive agricultural areas in the world. California is the most great whites have migrated to an area between Baja California Baja California is both the northernmost and westernmost state of Mexico. Before becoming a state in 1953, the area was known as the North Territory of Baja California. It has an area of 71,576 km2 (27,636 sq mi), or 3.57% of the land mass of Mexico and comprises the northern half of the Baja California peninsula, north of the 28th parallel. The and Hawaii The state encompasses nearly the entire volcanic Hawaiian Island chain, which comprises hundreds of islands spread over 1,500 miles . At the southeastern end of the archipelago, the eight "main islands" are (from the northwest to southeast) Niʻihau, Kauaʻi, Oʻahu, Molokaʻi, Lānaʻi, Kahoʻolawe, Maui, and Hawaiʻi. The last is by known as White Shark Café, to spend at least 100 days before migrating back to Baja. On the journey out, they swim slowly and dive down to around 900 m (3,000 ft). After they arrive, they change behavior and do short dives to about 300 m (1,000 ft) for up to 10 minutes. Another white shark tagged off the South African coast swam to the southern coast of Australia and back within the year. This refuted traditional theories that white sharks are coastal territorial predators and opens up the possibility of interaction between shark populations that were previously thought to be discrete. Why they migrate and what they do at their destination is still unknown. Possibilities include seasonal feeding or mating.[12]

A similar study tracked a great white shark from South Africa swimming to Australia's northwestern coast and back, a journey of 20,000 km (12,000 mi; 11,000 nmi) in under 9 months.[13]

Anatomy and appearance

The great white shark has a robust large conical snout. The upper and lower lobes on the tail fin are approximately the same size (like most mackerel sharks, but unlike most others).

Great whites display countershading Countershading, or Thayer's Law, is a form of camouflage. Countershading, in which an animal’s pigmentation is darker dorsally, is often thought to have an adaptive effect of reducing conspicuous shadows cast on the ventral region of an animal’s body. In essence the distribution of light on objects that are lit from above will cause unequal, having a white underside and a grey dorsal area (sometimes in a brown or blue shade) that gives an overall "mottled" appearance. The coloration makes it difficult for prey to spot the shark because it breaks up the shark's outline when seen from the side. From above, the darker shade blends with the sea and from below it exposes a minimal silhouette against the sunlight.

Great white sharks, like many other sharks, have rows of serrated teeth Shark teeth are relics of shark evolution and biology, and as they are often the only part of the shark to survive fossilisation, represent much of the Selachimorpha fossil record, extending back hundreds of millions of years. The most ancient types of sharks date back to 450 million years ago during the Late Ordovician period, and they are mostly behind the main ones, ready to replace any that break off. When the shark bites it shakes its head side to side helping the teeth saw off large chunks of flesh.

Size

Males reach maturity at 3.5–4.0 metres The metre , symbol m, is the base unit of length in the International System of Units (SI). Originally intended to be one ten-millionth of the distance from the Earth's equator to the North Pole, its definition has been periodically refined to reflect growing knowledge of metrology. Since 1983, it is defined as the distance travelled by light in a (11–13 ft A foot is a non-SI unit of length in a number of different systems including English units, Imperial units, and United States customary units. Its size can vary from system to system, but in each is around a quarter to a third of a meter. The most commonly used foot today is the international foot. There are three feet in a yard and 12 inches in a), and females at 4.5–5.0 metres The metre , symbol m, is the base unit of length in the International System of Units (SI). Originally intended to be one ten-millionth of the distance from the Earth's equator to the North Pole, its definition has been periodically refined to reflect growing knowledge of metrology. Since 1983, it is defined as the distance travelled by light in a (15–16 ft). Adults on average are 4–5.2 metres (13–17.1 ft) long and have a mass of 680–1,100 kilograms (1,500–2,400 lb). Females are generally larger than males. It is widely accepted that the great white shark can approach 6.1 m (20 ft) in length and 1,900 kg (4,200 lb) in weight.[3] However, the maximum size is still subject to hot debate because such reports are often rough estimations or speculations performed under questionable circumstances.[14]

For several decades, many ichthyological works, as well as the Guinness Book of World Records, listed two great white sharks as the largest individuals: a 10.9 m (36 ft) great white captured in Southern Australian waters near Port Fairy in the 1870s, and a 11.3 m (37 ft) shark trapped in a herring weir in New Brunswick, Canada in the 1930s. Some researchers question these measurements' reliability, noting they were much larger than any other accurately reported sighting. The New Brunswick shark may have been a misidentified basking shark, as the two have similar body shapes. The question of the Port Fairy shark was settled in the 1970s, when J. E. Randall examined the shark's jaws and "found that the Port Fairy shark was of the order of 5 m (17 ft) in length and suggested that a mistake had been made in the original record, in 1870, of the shark's length".[15]

According to J. E. Randall, the largest white shark reliably measured was a 6.0 m (19.7 ft) individual reported from Ledge Point, Western Australia in 1987.[15] Another great white specimen of similar size has been verified by the Canadian Shark Research Center: a female caught by David McKendrick of Alberton, Prince Edward Island in August 1988 in the Gulf of St. Lawrence off PEI. This female great white was 6.1 m (20 ft) long.[3] However, a larger great white shark specimen was verified by T. C. Tricas and J. E. McCosker in 1984. This specimen was 6.4 m (21 ft) long and had a body mass of about 3,324 kg (7,330 lb).[16]

Great white shark caught off Hualien County, Taiwan on May 14, 1997. It was reportedly almost 7 m (23 ft) in length, with a mass of 2,500 kilograms (5,500 lb).[17]

Several great white sharks caught in modern times have been estimated to be more than 7 m (23 ft) long,[18] but these claims have received some criticism.[14][18] However, J. E. Randall believed that great white shark may have exceeded 6.1 m (20 ft) in length.[15] A great white shark was captured near Kangaroo Island in Australia on April 1, 1987. This shark was estimated to be more than 7 m (23 ft) long by Peter Resiley,[15][19] and has been designated as KANGA.[18] Another great white shark was caught in Malta by Alfredo Cutajar in April 16, 1987. This shark was also estimated to be around 7.13 m (23.4 ft) long by John Abela and has been designated as MALTA.[18] However, criticism occurred — Cappo used shark size estimation methods proposed by J. E. Randall to suggest that KANGA specimen was 5.8–6.4 m (19–21 ft) long.[18] In the similar fashion, I. K. Fergusson also used shark size estimation methods proposed by J. E. Randall to suggest that MALTA specimen was 5.3–5.7 m (17–19 ft) long.[18] However, photographic evidence suggested that these specimens were larger than the size estimations yielded through Randall's methods.[18] Thus, a team of scientists, H. F. Mollet, G. M. Cailliet, A. P. Klimley, D. A. Ebert, A. D. Testi, and L. J. V. Compagno, reviewed the cases of KANGA and MALTA specimens in 1996 to resolve the dispute by conducting a comprehensive morphometric analysis of the remains of these sharks and re-examination of photographic evidence in an attempt to validate the original size estimations and their findings were consistent with them. The findings indicated that estimations by P. Resiley and J. Abela are reasonable and cannot be ruled out.[18]

A close contender in size is the Tiger shark, Galeocerdo cuvier, with largest specimen reported to have been 7.4 metres (24 ft) in length along with a mass of 3,110 kilograms (6,900 lb).[20] Some other macropredatory sharks such as Greenland Shark, Somniosus microcephalus, and Pacific sleeper shark, Somniosus pacificus, are also known to rival these sharks in length.[21][22] The question of maximum weight is complicated by the unresolved question of whether or not to include the shark's stomach contents when weighing the shark. With a single bite a great white can take in up to 14 kg (31 lb) of flesh, and can consume several hundred kilograms of food.

The largest great white recognized by the International Game Fish Association (IGFA) is one landed by Alf Dean in south Australian waters in 1959, weighing 1,208 kg (2,660 lb).[14] Several larger great whites caught by anglers have since been verified, but were later disallowed from formal recognition by IGFA monitors for rules violations.

Adaptations

A great white shark swimming

Great white sharks, like all other sharks, have an extra sense given by the Ampullae of Lorenzini, which enables them to detect the electromagnetic field emitted by the movement of living animals. Every time a living creature moves it generates an electrical field and great whites are so sensitive they can detect half a billionth of a volt. Even heart beats emit a very faint electrical pulse. If close enough the shark can detect even that faint electrical pulse. Most fish have a less-developed but similar sense using their body's lateral line.

To more successfully hunt fast and agile prey such as sea lions, the great white has adapted to maintain a body temperature warmer than the surrounding water. One of these adaptations is a "rete mirabile" (Latin for "wonderful net"). This close web-like structure of veins and arteries, located along each lateral side of the shark, conserves heat by warming the cooler arterial blood with the venous blood that has been warmed by the working muscles. This keeps certain parts of the body (particularly the brain) at temperatures up to 14 °C (25 °F)[23] above the surrounding water, while the heart and gills remain at sea-temperature. When conserving energy the core body temperature can drop to match the surroundings. A great white shark's success in raising its core temperature is an example of gigantothermy. Therefore, the great white shark can be considered an endothermic poikilotherm, because its body temperature is not constant but is internally regulated.

Ecology and behavior

A great white shark turns onto its back while hunting tuna bait

This shark's behavior and social structure is not well understood. In South Africa, white sharks have a dominance hierarchy depending on size, sex and squatter's rights: Females dominate males, larger sharks dominate smaller sharks, and residents dominate newcomers. When hunting, great whites tend to separate and resolve conflicts with rituals and displays.[24] White sharks rarely resort to combat although some individuals have been found with bite marks that match those of other white sharks. This suggests that when another shark approaches too closely, great whites react with a warning bite. Another possibility is that white sharks bite to show dominance.

The great white shark is one of only a few sharks known to regularly lift its head above the sea surface to gaze at other objects such as prey; this is known as "spy-hopping". This behaviour has also been seen in at least one group of blacktip reef sharks, but this might be learned from interaction with humans (it is theorized that the shark may also be able to smell better this way, because smell travels through air faster than through water). The white sharks are generally very curious animals, display intelligence and may also turn to socializing if situation demands such.[24] At Seal Island, white sharks have been observed arriving and departing in stable "clans" of two to six individuals on yearly basis. Whether clan members are related is unknown, but they get along peacefully enough. In fact, the social structure of a clan is probably most aptly compared to that of a wolf pack: each member has a clearly established rank, and each clan has an alpha leader. When members of different clans meet, they establish social rank nonviolently through any of a fascinating variety of interactions.[24]

Diet

Great white shark off Guadalupe Island, Mexico

Great white sharks are carnivorous, and prey upon fish (e.g. tuna, rays,[24] other sharks[24]), cetaceans (i.e., dolphins, porpoises, whales), pinnipeds (e.g. seals, fur seals,[24] and sea lions), sea turtles,[24] sea otters, and seabirds.[25] Great whites have also been known to eat objects that they are unable to digest. Upon approaching a length of nearly 4 metres (13 ft), great white shark begins to predominantely target marine mammals for food.[26] These sharks prefer prey with high contents of energy-rich fat. Shark expert Peter Klimley used a rod-and-reel rig and trolled carcasses of a seal, a pig, and a sheep to his boat in the South Farallons. The sharks attacked all three baits but rejected the sheep carcass.[27]

Great white sharks' reputation as ferocious predators is well-earned, yet they are not (as was once believed) indiscriminate "eating machines". They are ambush hunters, taking prey by surprise from below. Near the now-famous Seal Island, in South Africa's False Bay, shark attacks most often occur in the morning, within 2 hours after sunrise, when visibility is poor. Their success rate is 55% in the first 2 hours, falling to 40% in late morning, after which hunting stops.[24]

Hunting techniques vary by prey species. Off Seal Island the shark ambush cape fur seals from below at high speeds, hitting the seal mid-body. They go so fast that they can completely leave the water. The peak burst speed of these sharks is largely accepted in the scientific community to be above 40 kilometres per hour (25 mph). However further precision is still speculative.[28] They have also been observed chasing prey after a missed attack. Prey is usually attacked at the surface.[29]

Off California, sharks immobilize northern elephant seals with a large bite to the hindquarters (which is the main source of the seal's mobility) and wait for the seal to bleed to death. This technique is especially used on adult male elephant seals which can be as large or larger than the hunter and are potentially dangerous adversaries. Prey is normally attacked sub-surface. Harbour seals are simply grabbed from the surface and pulled down until they stop struggling. They are then eaten near the bottom. California sea lions are ambushed from below and struck mid-body before being dragged and eaten.[30]

White sharks attack dolphins and porpoises from above, behind or below to avoid being detected by their echolocation. Targeted species include dusky dolphins,[18] Risso's dolphins,[18] bottlenose dolphins,[18][31] Humpback dolphins,[31] harbour porpoises,[18] and Dall's porpoises.[18] Close encounters between dolphins and predatory sharks often result in evasive responses by the dolphins.[31] However, in rare cases, a group of dolphins may chase a single predatory shark away in an act of defence.[31] White shark predation on some species of whales have also been observed — white sharks often attack and prey upon pygmy sperm whales, Kogia breviceps, in the Mediterranean Sea.[32] In addition, white sharks also attack and prey upon beaked whales.[18][31]

Even though the great whites are known to generally avoid conflicts with each other, the phenomenon of cannibalism is not alien to this species. Large individuals may aggressively interact intraspecifically with small individuals. A 3 m (9.8 ft) long great white shark was nearly bitten in to two by a reportedly 6 m (20 ft) long great white shark in Stradbroke Island, near Brisbane in Australia.[33]

White sharks also scavenge on whale carcasses. In one such documented incident, white sharks were observed scavenging on a whale carcass alongside tiger sharks.[34]

Bite force

Great white shark biting into the fish head teaser bait next to a cage in False Bay, South Africa

A 2007 study from the University of New South Wales in Sydney, Australia, used CT scans of a shark's skull and computer models to measure maximum bite force. The study reveals the forces and behaviors its skull is adapted to handle and resolves competing theories about its feeding behaviour.[35] In 2008, a team of scientists led by Stephen Wroe conducted an experiment to determine great white shark's jaw power and findings indicated that specimen more than 6.1 m (20 ft) long could exert a bite force of over 18,000 newtons (4,000 lbf).[16]

Reproduction

Little is known about great white shark behaviour in the way of mating habits. Birth has never been observed, but pregnant females have been examined. Great white sharks are ovoviviparous (eggs develop and hatch in the uterus, and continue to develop until birth). The great white has an 11 month gestation period. The shark pup's powerful jaws begin to develop in the first month. The unborn sharks participate in intrauterine-cannibalism: stronger pups consume their weaker womb-mates. Delivery is in spring and summer.

Almost nothing is known about mating behavior. Some evidence points to the near-soporific effect of a large feast (such as a whale carcass) possibly inducing mating.

Great white sharks reach sexual maturity at around 15 years of age.[36] Maximum life span is believed to be more than 30 years. (see "references" below)

Natural threats

Although the great white is typically regarded as an apex predator in the wild, it is in rare cases, preyed upon by the larger orca (also known as a killer whale). Interspecific competition between the great white shark and the orca is probable in regions where dietary preferences of both species may overlap.[31] An incident was documented on October 4, 1997 in the Farallon Islands off California.[37] An estimated 4.7–5.3-metre (15–17 ft) long female orca killed an estimated 3–4-metre (9.8–13 ft) long great white and ate its liver.[31][37][38] Another similar attack apparently occurred there in 2000, but its outcome is not clear.[39] After both attacks, the local population of about 100 great whites vanished.[38][39] Following the 2000 incident, a great white with a satellite tag was found to have immediately submerged to depth of 500 m and swam to Hawaii.[39] Prior to the evolution of orcas, great whites may have similarly avoided the much larger shark, C. megalodon.[18][39]

Relationship with humans

Shark attacks

Main article: Shark attack

More than any documented attack, Peter Benchley's best selling novel Jaws and the subsequent 1975 film adaptation directed by Steven Spielberg provided the great white shark with the image of a "man eater" in the public mind.[40] While great white sharks have killed a few humans, they typically do not target them: for example, in the Mediterranean Sea there have been 31 confirmed attacks against humans in the last two centuries, most non-fatal. Many incidents seem to be "test-bites". Great white sharks also test-bite buoys, flotsam, and other unfamiliar objects, and might grab a human or a surfboard to identify it.

The great white shark is one of only four kind of sharks that have been involved in a significant number of fatal unprovoked attacks on humans

Other incidents seem to be cases of mistaken identity, in which a shark ambushes a bather or surfer from below, believing the silhouette is from a seal. Many attacks occur in waters with low visibility, or other situations which impair the shark's senses. The species appears to not like the taste of humans, or at least finds the taste unfamiliar. Further research shows that they can tell in one bite whether or not the object is worth attacking. Humans, for the most part, are too bony for their liking. They much prefer a fat, protein-rich seal.[41]

However, some researchers have hypothesized that the reason the proportion of fatalities is low is not because sharks do not like human flesh, but because humans are often able to escape after the first bite. In the 1980s John McCosker noted that divers who dove solo and were attacked by great whites were generally at least partially consumed, while divers who followed the buddy system were generally rescued by their buddy. Tricas and McCosker suggest that a standard pattern for great whites is to make an initial devastating attack, and then wait for the prey to weaken before consuming the wounded animal. Humans' ability to move out of reach with the help of others, thus foiling the attack, is unusual for a great white's prey.[42]

Humans, in any case, are not appropriate prey because shark's digestion is too slow to cope with the human's high ratio of bone to muscle and fat. Accordingly, in most recorded attacks, great whites broke off contact after the first bite. Fatalities are usually caused by blood loss from the initial limb injury rather than from critical organ loss or from whole consumption.

A shark conservationist, Jimmy Hall, reported and documented his personal encounter with a very large great white shark, nicknamed as Schatzi, on December, 2005, in waters of Hawaii. This encounter received worldwide attention as it remained entirely peaceful. J. Hall was first cautious but later on swam with this shark without cage protection and touched it repeatedly while filming it simultaneously. This encounter may serve as evidence that humans can peacefully co-exist with great white sharks, which aren't mind-less man-eaters as often depicted in movies.[43]

Great white shark between a cage and a boat

Attacks on boats

Great white sharks infrequently attack and sometimes even sink boats. Only 5 of the 108 authenticated unprovoked shark attacks reported from the Pacific Coast during the 20th century involved kayakers.[44] In a few cases they have attacked boats up to 10 metres (33 ft) in length. They have bumped or knocked people overboard, usually 'attacking' the boat from the stern. In one case in 1936, a large shark leapt completely into the South African fishing boat Lucky Jim, knocking a crewman into the sea. Tricas and McCosker's underwater observations suggest that sharks are attracted to boats due to the electrical fields they generate.[45]

Great white sharks in captivity

Great white shark in the Monterey Bay Aquarium in September, 2006

Prior to August 1981, no great white shark in captivity lived longer than 11 days. In August 1981, a shark survived for 16 days at SeaWorld San Diego before being released.[46] The idea of containing a live great white at SeaWorld Orlando was used in the 1983 film Jaws 3-D.

In 1984, shortly before its opening day, the Monterey Bay Aquarium in Monterey, California, housed its first great white shark, which died after 10 days. In July 2003, Monterey researchers captured a small female and kept it in a large netted pen near Malibu for five days. They had the rare success of getting the shark to feed in captivity before its release.[47] Not until September 2004 was the aquarium able to place a great white on long-term exhibit. A young female, who was caught off the coast of Ventura, was kept in the aquarium's massive 3,800,000-litre (1,000,000 US gal) Outer Bay exhibit for 198 days before she was released in March 2005. She was tracked for 30 days after release.[48] On the evening of August 31, 2006 the aquarium introduced a juvenile male caught outside Santa Monica Bay[49] His first meal as a captive was a large salmon steak on September 8, 2006 and as of that date, he was estimated to be 1.72 metres (68 in) and to weigh approximately 47 kilograms (100 lb). He was released on January 16, 2007 after 137 days in captivity.

In addition, Monterey Bay Aquarium housed a third great white, a juvenile male, for 162 days between August 27, 2007 through February 5, 2008. On arrival, he was 1.4 metres (4 ft 7 in) long and weighed 30.6 kilograms (67 lb). He grew to 1.8 metres (5 ft 11 in) and 64 kilograms (140 lb) at release. A juvenile female came to the Outer Bay Exhibit on August 27, 2008. While she swam well, the shark fed only one time during her stay and was tagged and released on September 7. Another juvenile female was captured near Malibu on August 12, 2009, introduced to the Outer Bay exhibit on August 26, and successfully released to the wild on November 4, 2009.[50]

Probably the most famous captive was a 2.4 metres (7.9 ft) female named "Sandy", which in August 1980 became the only great white to be housed at the California Academy of Sciences' Steinhart Aquarium in San Francisco, California. She was released because she would not eat and constantly bumped against the walls.[51]

Shark tourism

Putting chum in the water A great white shark approaches a cage

Their infamous reputation gives sharks great appeal for tourists. While it is safe to dive near sharks of most species, diving with great whites requires great care. One common approach is for divers to stay within a steel cage.

Cage diving is most common off the coasts of Australia, South Africa, and Guadalupe Island off the coast of Baja California, which great whites frequent. Cage diving & swimming with sharks is a focus for a booming tourist industry due to its popularity.[52][53] A common practice is to chum the water with pieces of fish to attract sharks. These practices may make sharks more accustomed to people in their environment and to associate human activity with food—a potentially dangerous situation. By drawing bait on a wire towards the cage, tour operators lure the shark to the cage, possibly striking it, exacerbating this problem. Other operators draw the bait away from the cage, causing the shark to swim past the divers.

Companies object to being blamed for shark attacks, pointing out that lightning tends to strike humans more often than sharks bite humans.[54] Their position is that further research needs to be done before banning practices such as chumming which may alter natural behaviour.[55]

One compromise is to only use chum in areas in which whites actively patrol anyway, well away from human leisure areas. Also, responsible dive operators do not feed sharks; only sharks that are willing to scavenge follow the chum trail, and if they find no food at the end then the shark soon swims off and does not associate chum with a meal. It has been suggested that government licensing strategies may help enforce these suggested advisories.

The shark tourist industry has some financial leverage in conserving this animal. A single set of great white jaws can fetch a one-time price of up to £20,000. However, that is a fraction of the tourism value of a live shark, a more sustainable economic activity. For example, the dive industry in Gaansbai, South Africa, consists of six boat operators with each boat guiding 30 people each day. With fees between £50 to £150 per person, a single live shark that visits each boat can create anywhere between £9,000 to £27,000 of revenue daily.

Conservation status

It is unclear how much a concurrent increase in fishing for great white sharks has caused the decline of great white shark populations from the 1970s to the present. No accurate population numbers are available, but the great white shark is now considered endangered. Sharks taken during the long interval between birth and sexual maturity never reproduce, preventing population recovery.

The IUCN notes that very little is known about the actual status of the great white shark, but as it appears uncommon compared to other widely distributed species, it is considered vulnerable.[2] It is included in Appendix II of CITES,[6] meaning that international trade in the species requires a permit.[56]

Fishermen target many sharks for its jaws, teeth, and fins, and as a game fish. The great white shark, however, is rarely an object of commercial fishing, although its flesh is considered valuable. If casually captured (it happens for example in some tonnare in the Mediterranean), it is misleadingly sold as smooth-hound shark.

From April 2007 great white sharks were fully protected within 370 kilometres (200 nmi) of New Zealand and additionally from fishing by New Zealand-flagged boats outside this range. The maximum penalty is a $250,000 fine and up to six months in prison.[57]

See also

Sharks portal

Footnotes

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  2. ^ a b c Fergusson, I., Compagno, L.; Marks, M. (2000). "Carcharodon carcharias in IUCN 2009". IUCN Red List of Threatened Species, Vers. 2009.1. International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources. http://www.iucnredlist.org/apps/redlist/details/3855/0/full. Retrieved October 28, 2009. (Database entry includes justification for why this species is vulnerable)
  3. ^ a b c Viegas, Jennifer. "Largest Great White Shark Don't Outweigh Whales, but They Hold Their Own". Discovery Channel. http://dsc.discovery.com/sharks/largest-great-white-shark.html. Retrieved 2010-01-19.
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  6. ^ a b UNEP-WCMC (2010). Carcharodon carcharias. UNEP-WCMC Species Database: CITES-Listed Species On the World Wide Web. Retrieved 2010-04-08.
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  9. ^ Areal Distribution of the White Shark
  10. ^ Great white shark research in New Zealand
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  22. ^ "Pacific Sleeper Shark". http://www.elasmo-research.org/education/ecology/deepsea-pacific_sleeper.htm.
  23. ^ Body Temperature of the Great white and Other Lamnoid Sharks
  24. ^ a b c d e f g h "R. Aidan Martin and Anne Martin". "Sociable Killers". "Natural History Magazine, Inc". http://www.naturalhistorymag.com/picks-from-the-past/201391/sociable-killers. Retrieved 2006-09-30.
  25. ^ Johnson, R. L.; A. Venter, M.N. Bester, and W.H. Oosthuizen (2006). "Seabird predation by white shark Carcharodon Carcharias and Cape fur seal Arctocephalus pusillus pusillus at Dyer Island". South African Journal of Wildlife Research (South Africa) 36 (1): 23–32. http://www.oceans-research.com/media/publications/SeabirdPublishedManuscript.pdf.
  26. ^ Estrada, J. A.; Aaron N. Rice, Lisa J. Natanson, and Gregory B. Skomal (2006). "USE OF ISOTOPIC ANALYSIS OF VERTEBRAE IN RECONSTRUCTING ONTOGENETIC FEEDING ECOLOGY IN WHITE SHARKS". Ecology (USA) 87 (4): 829–834. doi:10.1890/0012-9658(2006)87[829:UOIAOV]2.0.CO;2. PMID 16676526. http://www.esajournals.org/doi/abs/10.1890/0012-9658%282006%2987%5B829%3AUOIAOV%5D2.0.CO%3B2?journalCode=ecol.
  27. ^ Catch as Catch Can
  28. ^ How Fast Can a Shark Swim?
  29. ^ White Shark Predatory Behavior at Seal Island
  30. ^ Predatory Behavior of Pacific Coast White Sharks
  31. ^ a b c d e f g Heithaus, Michael (2001). "Predator–prey and competitive interactions between sharks (order Selachii) and dolphins (suborder Odontoceti): a review". Journal of Zoology (London: Cambridge University Press) 253: 53–68. doi:10.1017/S0952836901000061. http://www.science.fau.edu/sharklab/courses/elasmobiology/readings/heithaus.pdf. Retrieved 2010-02-26.
  32. ^ Long, Douglas (1991). "Apparent Predation by a White Shark Carcharodon carcharias on a Pygmy Sperm Whale Kogia breviceps". Fishery Bulletin 89: 538–540
  33. ^ "Monster shark bites great white in half". The Daily Telegraph (Australia). 27 October 2009. http://www.dailytelegraph.com.au/news/monster-shark-bites-great-white-in-half/story-e6freuy9-1225791557651.
  34. ^ Dudley, Sheldon F. J.; Michael D. Anderson-Reade, Greg S. Thompson, and Paul B. McMullen (2000). "Concurrent scavenging off a whale carcass by great white sharks, Carcharodon carcharias, and tiger sharks, Galeocerdo cuvier" (PDF). Marine Biology. Fishery Bulletin. http://fishbull.noaa.gov/983/13.pdf. Retrieved 4 May 2010.
  35. ^ "Measuring the great white's bite". Cosmos Magazine. 27 July 2007. http://www.cosmosmagazine.com/node/1499.
  36. ^ Natural History of the White Shark "Natural History of the White Shark". May 2, 2010. http://www.prbo.org/cms/176 Natural History of the White Shark.
  37. ^ a b Pyle, Peter; Mary Jane Schramm, Carol Keiper, Scot D. Anderson (26 August 2006). "PREDATION ON A WHITE SHARK (CARCHARODON CARCHARIAS) BY A KILLER WHALE (ORCINUS ORCA) AND A POSSIBLE CASE OF COMPETITIVE DISPLACEMENT". Society of marine mammalogy (USA: Marine Mammal Science) 15 (2): 563–568. doi:10.1111/j.1748-7692.1999.tb00822.x. http://www.prbo.org/cms/docs/marine/MMS.pdf. Retrieved 8 May 2010.
  38. ^ a b Nature Shock Series Premiere: The Whale That Ate the Great White
  39. ^ a b c d Turner, Pamela S. (Oct/Nov 2004). "Showdown at Sea: What happens when great white sharks go fin-to-fin with killer whales?". National Wildlife (National Wildlife Federation) 42 (6). http://www.nwf.org/nationalwildlife/article.cfm?issueid=70&articleid=991. Retrieved 2009-11-21.
  40. ^ Benchley, Peter (April 2000). "Great white sharks". National Geographic: 12. ISSN 00279358. "considering the knowledge accumulated about sharks in the last 25 years, I couldn't possibly write Jaws today ... not in good conscience anyway ... back then, it was OK to demonize an animal.".
  41. ^ McCabe, Meghan. "Sharks: Killing Machines?". http://serendip.brynmawr.edu/biology/b103/f00/web1/mccabe.html
  42. ^ Tricas, T.C.; John McCosker (1984). "Proceedings of the California Academy of Sciences". Predatory behavior of the white shark, Carcharodon carcharias, and notes on its biology 43 (14): 221–238.
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  45. ^ Tricas and McCosker. Predatory Behaviour of the White Shark. Proceedings of the California Academy of Sci. 43(14):221-38, 1984.
  46. ^ "Great white shark sets record at California aquarium". USA Today. 2004-10-02. http://www.usatoday.com/news/science/2004-10-02-great-white_x.htm. Retrieved 2006-09-27.
  47. ^ "Great white shark puts jaws on display in aquarium tank". San Francisco Chronicle. 2004-09-16. http://www.sfgate.com/cgi-bin/article.cgi?f=/c/a/2004/09/16/BAGCM8PN3E1.DTL. Retrieved 2006-09-27.
  48. ^ "White Shark Research Project". Monterey Bay Aquarium. http://www.mbayaq.org/cr/whiteshark.asp. Retrieved 2006-09-27.
  49. ^ "Great white shark introduced at Monterey Bay Aquarium". San Francisco Chronicle. 2003-09-01. http://sfgate.com/cgi-bin/article.cgi?f=/c/a/2006/09/01/MNG1IKTP904.DTL. Retrieved 2006-09-27.
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References

"Carcharodon carcharias". Integrated Taxonomic Information System. http://www.itis.gov/servlet/SingleRpt/SingleRpt?search_topic=TSN&search_value=159903. Retrieved 23 January, 2006.

External links

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Extant shark species
Kingdom Animalia · Phylum Chordata · Subphylum Vertebrata · Class Chondrichthyes · Subclass Elasmobranchii
Order Hexanchiformes
Chlamydoselachidae
Chlamydoselachus Frilled shark (C. anguineus) · Southern African frilled shark (C. africana)
Hexanchidae (Cow sharks)
Heptranchias Sharpnose sevengill shark (H. perlo)
Hexanchus Bluntnose sixgill shark (H. griseus) · Bigeyed sixgill shark (H. nakamurai)
Notorynchus Broadnose sevengill shark (N. cepedianus)
Order Squaliformes
Centrophoridae (Gulper sharks)
Centrophorus Needle dogfish (C. acus) · Dwarf gulper shark (C. atromarginatus) · Gulper shark (C. granulosus) · Dumb gulper shark (C. harrissoni) · Blackfin gulper shark (C. isodon) · Lowfin gulper shark (C. lusitanicus) · Smallfin gulper shark (C. moluccensis) · Taiwan gulper shark (C. niaukang) · Leafscale gulper shark (C. squamosus) · Mosaic gulper shark (C. tessellatus) · Little gulper shark (C. uyato)
Deania Birdbeak dogfish (D. calcea) · Rough longnose dogfish (D. hystricosa) · Arrowhead dogfish (D. profundorum) · Longsnout dogfish (D. quadrispinosum)
Dalatiidae
Euprotomicroides Taillight shark (E. zantedeschia)
Heteroscymnoides Longnose pygmy shark (H. marleyi)
Mollisquama Pocket shark (M. parini)
Dalatias Kitefin shark (D. licha)
Isistius Cookiecutter shark (I. brasiliensis) · South China cookiecutter shark (I. labialis) · Largetooth cookiecutter shark (I. plutodus)
Euprotomicrus Pygmy shark (E. bispinatus)
Squaliolus Smalleye pygmy shark (S. aliae) · Spined pygmy shark (S. laticaudus)
Echinorhinidae
Echinorhinus Bramble shark (E. brucus) · Prickly shark (E. cookei)
Etmopteridae
Aculeola Hooktooth dogfish (A. nigra)
Centroscyllium Highfin dogfish (C. excelsum) · Black dogfish (C. fabricii) · Granular dogfish (C. granulatum) · Bareskin dogfish (C. kamoharai) · Combtooth dogfish (C. nigrum) · Ornate dogfish (C. ornatum) · Whitefin dogfish (C. ritteri)
Etmopterus (Lantern sharks) New Zealand lanternshark (E. baxteri) · Blurred lanternshark (E. bigelowi) · Shorttail lanternshark (E. brachyurus) · Lined lanternshark (E. bullisi) · E. burgessi · Cylindrical lanternshark (E. carteri) · Tailspot lanternshark (E. caudistigmus) · Combtooth lanternshark (E. decacuspidatus) · Pink lanternshark (E. dianthus) · E. dislineatus · Blackmouth lanternshark (E. evansi) · Pygmy lanternshark (E. fusus) · Broadbanded lanternshark (E. gracilispinis) · Southern lanternshark (E. granulosus) · Caribbean lanternshark (E. hillianus) · Smalleye lantern shark (E. litvinovi) · Blackbelly lanternshark (E. lucifer) · Slendertail lanternshark (E. molleri) · Dwarf lanternshark (E. perryi) · African lanternshark (E. polli) · Great lanternshark (E. princeps) · False lanternshark (E. pseudosqualiolus) · Smooth lanternshark (E. pusillus) · Dense-scale lantern shark (E. pycnolepis) · West Indian lanternshark (E. robinsi) · Fringefin lanternshark (E. schultzi) · Thorny lanternshark (E. sentosus) · Velvet belly lantern shark (E. spinax) · Splendid lanternshark (E. splendidus) · Tasmanian lanternshark (E. tasmaniensis) · Brown lanternshark (E. unicolor) · Hawaiian lanternshark (E. villosus) · Green lanternshark (E. virens)
Miroscyllium Rasptooth dogfish (M. sheikoi)
Trigonognathus Viper dogfish (T. kabeyai)
Oxynotidae (Rough sharks)
Oxynotus Prickly dogfish (O. bruniensis) · Caribbean roughshark (O. caribbaeus) · Angular roughshark (O. centrina) · Japanese roughshark (O. japonicus) · Sailfin roughshark (O. paradoxus)
Somniosidae (Sleeper sharks)
Centroscymnus Portuguese dogfish (C. coelolepis) · Shortnose velvet dogfish (C. cryptacanthus) · Roughskin dogfish (C. owstoni)
Centroselachus Longnose velvet dogfish (C. crepidater)
Proscymnodon Largespine velvet dogfish (P. macracanthus) · Plunket shark (P. plunketi)
Scymnodalatias Whitetail dogfish (S. albicauda) · Azores dogfish (S. garricki) · Sparsetooth dogfish (S. oligodon) · Sherwood dogfish (S. sherwoodi)
Scymnodon Smallmouth velvet dogfish (S. obscurus) · Knifetooth dogfish (S. ringens)
Somniosus Greenland shark (S. microcephalus) · Pacific sleeper shark (S. pacificus) · Little sleeper shark (S. rostratus)
Zameus Japanese velvet dogfish (Z. ichiharai) · Velvet dogfish (Z. squamulosus)
Squalidae (Dogfish sharks)
Cirrhigaleus Roughskin spurdog (C. asper) · Mandarin dogfish (C. barbifer)
Squalus (Spurdogs) Spiny dogfish (S. acanthias) · Eastern highfin spurdog (S. albifrons) · S. acutirostris · Western highfin spurdog (S. altipinnis) · Longnose spurdog (S. blainville) · Fatspine spurdog (S. crassispinus) · Cuban dogfish (S. cubensis) · Eastern longnose spurdog (S. grahami) · Japanese spurdog (S. japonicus) · Shortnose spurdog (S. megalops) · Blacktailed spurdog (S. melanurus) · Shortspine spurdog (S. mitsukurii) · Bartail spurdog (S. notocaudatus) · Western longnose spurdog (S. nasutus) · Cyrano spurdog (S. rancureli)
Order Pristiophoriformes (Sawsharks)
Pristiophoridae
Pliotrema Sixgill sawshark (P. warreni)
Pristiophorus Longnose sawshark (P. cirratus) · Tropical sawshark (P. delicatus) · Japanese sawshark (P. japonicus) · Shortnose sawshark (P. nudipinnis) · Bahamas sawshark (P. schroederi) · Eastern Australian sawshark (Pristiophorus peroniensis) · Philippine sawshark (Pristiophorus sp. C) · Dwarf sawshark (Pristiophorus sp. D)
Order Squatiniformes (Angel sharks)
Squatinidae
Squatina Sawback angelshark (S. aculeata) · African angelshark (S. africana) · Eastern Australian angelshark (Squatina albipunctata) · Argentine angelshark (S. argentina) · Chilean angelshark (S. armata) · Australian angelshark (S. australis) · Pacific angelshark (S. californica) · Sand devil (S. dumeril) · Taiwan angelshark (S. formosa) · Angular angel shark (S. guggenheim) · S. heteroptera · Japanese angelshark (S. japonica) · Indonesian angelshark (S. legnota) · Cortez angelshark (S. mexicana) · Clouded angelshark (S. nebulosa) · Smoothback angelshark (S. oculata) · S. punctata · Western Australian angelshark (Squatina pseudocellata) · Angelshark (S. squatina) · Ornate angelshark (S. tergocellata) · Ocellated angelshark (S. tergocellatoides)
Order Heterodontiformes (Bullhead sharks)
Heterodontidae
Heterodontus Horn shark (H. francisci) · Crested bullhead shark (H. galeatus) · Japanese bullhead shark (H. japonicus) · Mexican hornshark (H. mexicanus) · Oman bullhead shark (H. omanensis) · Port Jackson shark (H. portusjacksoni) · Galapagos bullhead shark (H. quoyi) · Whitespotted bullhead shark (H. ramalheira) · Zebra bullhead shark (H. zebra)
Order Orectolobiformes (Carpet sharks)
Brachaeluridae
Brachaelurus Blind shark (B. waddi)
Heteroscyllium Bluegrey carpetshark (H. colcloughi)
Ginglymostomatidae (Nurse sharks)
Ginglymostoma Nurse shark (G. cirratum)
Nebrius Tawny nurse shark (N. ferrugineus)
Pseudoginglymostoma Short-tail nurse shark (P. brevicaudatum)
Hemiscylliidae (Bamboo sharks)
Chiloscyllium Arabian carpetshark (C. arabicum) · Burmese bamboo shark (C. burmensis) · Bluespotted bamboo shark (C. caerulopunctatum) · Grey bamboo shark (C. griseum) · Hasselt's bamboo shark (C. hasseltii) · Slender bamboo shark (C. indicum) · Whitespotted bamboo shark (C. plagiosum) · Brownbanded bamboo shark (C. punctatum)
Hemiscyllium Indonesian speckled carpetshark (H. freycineti) · H. galei · Papuan epaulette shark (H. hallstromi) · H. henryi · Epaulette shark (H. ocellatum) · Hooded carpetshark (H. strahani) · Speckled carpetshark (H. trispeculare)
Orectolobidae (Wobbegongs)
Eucrossorhinus Tasselled wobbegong (E. dasypogon)
Orectolobus Floral banded wobbegong (O. floridus) · Banded wobbegong (O. halei) · Western wobbegong (O. hutchinsi) · Japanese wobbegong (O. japonicus) · Spotted wobbegong (O. maculatus) · Ornate wobbegong (O. ornatus) · Dwarf spotted wobbegong (O. parvimaculatus) · Network wobbegong (O. reticulatus) · Northern wobbegong (O. wardi)
Sutorectus Cobbler wobbegong (S. tentaculatus)
Parascylliidae (Collared carpet sharks)
Cirrhoscyllium Barbelthroat carpetshark (C. expolitum) · Taiwan saddled carpetshark (C. formosanum) · Saddle carpetshark (C. japonicum)
Parascyllium Collared carpetshark (P. collare) · Rusty carpetshark (P. ferrugineum) · Ginger carpetshark (P. sparsimaculatum) · Necklace carpetshark (P. variolatum)
Rhincodontidae
Rhincodon Whale shark (R. typus)
Stegostomatidae
Stegostoma Zebra shark (S. fasciatum)
Order Carcharhiniformes (Ground sharks)
Hemigaleidae (Weasel sharks)
Hemipristis Snaggletooth shark (H. elongata)
Chaenogaleus Hooktooth shark (C. macrostoma)
Hemigaleus Australian weasel shark (H. australiensis) · Sicklefin weasel shark (H. microstoma)
Paragaleus Whitetip weasel shark (P. leucolomatus) · Atlantic weasel shark (P. pectoralis) · Slender weasel shark (P. randalli) · Straight-tooth weasel shark (P. tengi)
Leptochariidae
Leptocharias Barbeled houndshark (L. smithii)
Proscylliidae (Finback sharks)
Ctenacis Harlequin catshark (C. fehlmanni)
Eridacnis Cuban ribbontail catshark (E. barbouri) · Pygmy ribbontail catshark (E. radcliffei) · African ribbontail catshark (E. sinuans)
Proscyllium Graceful catshark (P. habereri) · P. venustum
Pseudotriakidae
Gollum Slender smooth-hound (G. attenuatus)
Pseudotriakis False catshark (P. microdon)
Sphyrnidae (Hammerhead sharks)
Eusphyra Winghead shark (E. blochii)
Sphyrna Scalloped bonnethead (S. corona) · Whitefin hammerhead (S. couardi) · Scalloped hammerhead (S. lewini) · Scoophead (S. media) · Great hammerhead (S. mokarran) · Bonnethead (S. tiburo) · Smalleye hammerhead (S. tudes) · Smooth hammerhead (S. zygaena)
Triakidae (Houndsharks)
Furgaleus Whiskery shark (F. macki)
Galeorhinus School shark (G. galeus)
Gogolia Sailback houndshark (G. filewoodi)
Hemitriakis Deepwater sicklefin hound shark (H. abdita) · Sicklefin hound shark (H. falcata) · Japanese topeshark (H. japanica) · Whitefin topeshark (H. leucoperiptera) · Ocelate topeshark (Hemitriakis Sp.A)
Hypogaleus Blacktip tope (H. hyugaensis)
Iago Longnose houndshark (I. garricki) · Bigeye houndshark (I. omanensis) · Lowfin houndshark (Iago Sp.A)
Mustelus (Smooth-hounds) M. albipinnis · Gummy shark (M. antarcticus) · Starry smooth-hound (M. asterias) · Grey smooth-hound (M. californicus) · Dusky smooth-hound (M. canis) · Sharptooth smooth-hound (M. dorsalis) · Striped smooth-hound (M. fasciatus) · Spotless smooth-hound (M. griseus) · Brown smooth-hound (M. henlei) · Smalleye smooth-hound (M. higmani) · Spotted estuary smooth-hound (M. lenticulatus) · Sicklefin smooth-hound (M. lunulatus) · Starspotted smooth-hound (M. manazo) · Speckled smooth-hound (M. mento) · M. minicanis · Arabian smooth-hound (M. mosis) · Common smooth-hound (M. mustelus) · Narrowfin smooth-hound (M. norrisi) · Whitespotted smooth-hound (M. palumbes) · Blackspotted smooth-hound (M. punctulatus) · M. ravidus · Narrownose smooth-hound (M. schmitti) · Gulf smoothhound (M. sinusmexicanus) · Humpback smooth-hound (M. whitneyi) · M. widodoi
Scylliogaleus Flapnose houndshark (S. quecketti)
Triakis Sharpfin houndshark (T. acutipinna) · Spotted houndshark (T. maculata) · Sharptooth houndshark (T. megalopterus) · Banded houndshark (T. scyllium) · Leopard shark (T. semifasciata)
Carcharhinidae Large family listed below
Scyliorhinidae Large family listed below
Family Carcharhinidae (Requiem sharks)
Carcharhinus Blacknose shark (C. acronotus) · Silvertip shark (C. albimarginatus) · Bignose shark (C. altimus) · Graceful shark (C. amblyrhynchoides) · Grey reef shark (C. amblyrhynchos) · Pigeye shark (C. amboinensis) · Borneo shark (C. borneensis) · Copper shark (C. brachyurus) · Spinner shark (C. brevipinna) · Nervous shark (C. cautus) · Whitecheek shark (C. dussumieri) · Silky shark (C. falciformis) · Creek whaler (C. fitzroyensis) · Galapagos shark (C. galapagenisis) · Pondicherry shark (C. hemiodon) · Finetooth shark (C. isodon) · Smoothtooth blacktip shark (C. leiodon) · Bull shark (C. leucas) · Blacktip shark (C. limbatus) · Oceanic whitetip shark (C. longimanus) · Hardnose shark (C. macloti) · Blacktip reef shark (C. melanopterus) · Dusky shark (C. obscurus) · Caribbean reef shark (C. perezii) · Sandbar shark (C. plumbeus) · Smalltail shark (C. porosus) · Blackspot shark (C. sealei) · Night shark (C. signatus) · Spottail shark (C. sorrah) · Australian blacktip shark (C. tilstoni)
Galeocerdo Tiger shark (G. cuvier)
Glyphis (River sharks) Ganges shark (G. gangeticus) · Northern river shark (G. garricki) · Speartooth shark (G. glyphis) · Irrawaddy river shark (G. siamensis) · Borneo river shark (Glyphis sp. B)
Isogomphodon Daggernose shark (I. oxyrhynchus)
Lamiopsis Broadfin shark (L. temminckii)
Loxodon Sliteye shark (L. macrorhinus)
Nasolamia Whitenose shark (N. velox)
Negaprion Sicklefin lemon shark (N. acutidens) · Lemon shark (N. brevirostris)
Prionace Blue shark (P. glauca)
Rhizoprionodon Milk shark (R. acutus) · Brazilian sharpnose shark (R. lalandii) · Pacific sharpnose shark (R. longurio) · Grey sharpnose shark (R. oligolinx) · Caribbean sharpnose shark (R. porosus) · Australian sharpnose shark (R. taylori) · Atlantic sharpnose shark (R. terraenovae)
Scoliodon Spadenose shark (S. laticaudus)
Triaenodon Whitetip reef shark (T. obesus)
Family Scyliorhinidae (Catsharks)
Apristurus Flatnose cat shark (A. acanutus) · A. albisoma · A. aphyodes · Atlantic ghost catshark (A. atlanticus) · Brown catshark (A. brunneus) · Hoary catshark (A. canutus) · Flaccid catshark (A. exsanguis) · A. fedorovi · Humpback cat shark (A. gibbosus) · Longfin catshark (A. herklotsi) · Smallbelly catshark (A. indicus) · A. internatus · Broadnose catshark (A. investigatoris) · Japanese catshark (A. japonicus) · Longnose catshark (A. kampae) · Iceland catshark (A. laurussonii) · Longhead catshark (A. longicephalus) · Flathead catshark (A. macrorhynchus) · Broadmouth cat shark (A. macrostomus) · Ghost catshark (A. manis) · Black roughscale catshark (A. melanoasper) · Smalleye catshark (A. microps) · Smalldorsal cat shark (A. micropterygeus) · Largenose catshark (A. nasutus) · Smallfin catshark (A. parvipinnis) · A. pinguis · Spatulasnout catshark (A. platyrhynchus) · Deepwater catshark (A. profundorum) · Broadgill catshark (A. riveri) · Saldanha catshark (A. saldanha) · Pale catshark (A. sibogae) · South China catshark (A. sinensis) · Spongehead catshark (A. spongiceps) · Panama ghost catshark (A. stenseni)
Asymbolus Australian spotted catshark (A. analis) · A. funebris · Western spotted catshark (A. occiduus) · Pale spotted catshark (A. pallidus) · A. parvus · A. rubiginosus · Variegated catshark (A. submaculatus) · Gulf catshark (A. vincenti)
Atelomycterus A. baliensis · Banded sand catshark (A. fasciatus) · Australian marbled catshark (A. macleayi) · Coral catshark (A. marmoratus)
Aulohalaelurus New Caledonia catshark (A. kanakorum) · Australian blackspotted catshark (A. labiosus)
Cephaloscyllium Whitefin swellshark (C. albipinnum) · Circle-blotch pygmy swellshark (C. circulopullum) · Cook's swellshark (C. cooki) · Reticulated swellshark (C. fasciatum) · Australian reticulate swellshark (C. hicosellum) · Draughtsboard shark (C. isabellum) · Australian swellshark (C. laticeps) · Spotted swellshark (C. maculatum) · Leopard-spotted swellshark (C. pardelotum) · Painted swellshark (C. pictum) · Sarawak pygmy swellshark (C. sarawakensis) · Flagtail swellshark (C. signourum) · Indian swellshark (C. silasi) · Speckled swellshark (C. speccum) · Balloon shark (C. sufflans) · Blotchy swellshark (C. umbratile) · Saddled swellshark (C. variegatum) · Swellshark (C. ventriosum) · Narrowbar swellshark (C. zebrum)
Cephalurus Lollipop catshark (C. cephalus)
Figaro Australian sawtail catshark (F. boardmani) · Northern sawtail catshark (F. striatus)
Galeus Antilles catshark (G. antillensis) · Roughtail catshark (G. arae) · Atlantic sawtail cat shark (G. atlanticus) · Longfin sawtail cat shark (G. cadenati) · Gecko catshark (G. eastmani) · Slender sawtail catshark (G. gracilis) · Longnose sawtail cat shark (G. longirostris) · Blackmouth catshark (G. melastomus) · Southern sawtail catshark (G. mincaronei) · Mouse catshark (G. murinus) · Broadfin sawtail catshark (G. nipponensis) · Peppered catshark (G. piperatus) · African sawtail catshark (G. polli) · G. priapus · Blacktip sawtail catshark (G. sauteri) · Dwarf sawtail catshark (G. schultzi) · Springer's sawtail cat shark (G. springeri)
Halaelurus Arabian catshark (H. alcockii) · Speckled catshark (H. boesemani) · Blackspotted catshark (H. buergeri) · Dusky catshark (H. canescens) · Broadhead cat shark (H. clevai) · New Zealand catshark (H. dawsoni) · Bristly catshark (H. hispidus) · Spotless catshark (H. immaculatus) · Lined catshark (H. lineatus) · Mud catshark (H. lutarius) · Tiger catshark (H. natalensis) · Quagga catshark (H. quagga)
Haploblepharus Puffadder shyshark (H. edwardsii) · Brown shyshark (H. fuscus) · Natal shyshark (H. kistnasamyi) · Dark shyshark (H. pictus)
Holohalaelurus H. favus · H. grennian · Crying izak (H. melanostigma) · African spotted catshark (H. punctatus) · Izak catshark (H. regani)
Parmaturus White-tip catshark (P. albimarginatus) · White-clasper catshark (P. albipenis) · Beige catshark (P. bigus) · Campeche catshark (P. campechiensis) · Velvet catshark (P. lanatus) · McMillan's catshark (P. macmillani) · Blackgill catshark (P. melanobranchus) · Salamander shark (P. pilosus) · Filetail catshark (P. xaniurus) · Shorttail catshark (Parmaturus sp. A)
Pentanchus Onefin catshark (P. profundicolus)
Poroderma Pyjama catshark (P. africanum) · Leopard catshark (P. pantherinum)
Schroederichthys Narrowmouthed catshark (S. bivius) · Redspotted catshark (S. chilensis) · Narrowtail catshark (S. maculatus) · Lizard catshark (S. saurisqualus) · Slender catshark (S. tenuis)
Scyliorhinus Polkadot catshark (S. besnardi) · Boa catshark (S. boa) · Small-spotted catshark (S. canicula) · Yellowspotted catshark (S. capensis) · West African catshark (S. cervigoni) · Comoro cat shark (S. comoroensis) · Brownspotted catshark (S. garmani) · Freckled catshark (S. haeckelii) · Whitesaddled catshark (S. hesperius) · Blotched catshark (S. meadi) · Chain catshark (S. retifer) · Nursehound (S. stellaris) · Izu cat shark (S. tokubee) · Cloudy catshark (S. torazame) · Dwarf catshark (S. torrei)
Order Lamniformes (Mackerel sharks)
Alopiidae
Alopias (Thresher sharks) Pelagic thresher (A. pelagicus) · Bigeye thresher (A. superciliosus) · Common thresher (A. vulpinus)
Cetorhinidae
Cetorhinus Basking shark (C. maximus)
Lamnidae
Carcharodon Great white shark (C. carcharias)
Isurus Shortfin mako shark (I. oxyrinchus) · Longfin mako shark (I. paucus)
Lamna Salmon shark (L. ditropis) · Porbeagle (L. nasus)
Megachasmidae
Megachasma Megamouth shark (M. pelagios)
Mitsukurinidae
Mitsukurina Goblin shark (M. owstoni)
Odontaspididae
Carcharias Grey nurse shark (C. taurus) · Indian sand tiger (C. tricuspidatus)
Odontaspis Smalltooth sand tiger (O. ferox) · Bigeye sand tiger (O. noronhai)
Pseudocarchariidae
Pseudocarcharias Crocodile shark (P. kamoharai)
Sharks
Topics Outline of sharks · Physical characteristics · Shark teeth · Threat display
Taxonomy Hexanchiformes · Squaliformes · Pristiophoriformes (Sawsharks) · Squatiniformes (Angel sharks) · Heterodontiformes (Bullhead sharks) · Orectolobiformes (Carpet sharks) · Carcharhiniformes (Ground sharks) · Lamniformes (Mackerel sharks) · List of sharks
Human interaction Shark attack · Shark net · Shark proof cage · Shark tourism · Drum lines
Category · Portal

Categories: IUCN Red List vulnerable species | Ovoviviparous fish | Lamnidae | Megafauna of Eurasia | Megafauna of Africa | Megafauna of North America | Megafauna of South America | Megafauna of Australia | Scavengers | Fish of Japan

 

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Shark Attack Study Announced: Politics of Bite Incidents Under Review

Earthtimes (press release)

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